Prenatal testing for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is recommended for

A. a woman who has had a sexually transmitted infection: While a history of an STI does increase HIV risk, limiting testing to this group could miss asymptomatic carriers. Universal testing ensures that all infected individuals are identified early for treatment and prevention of perinatal transmission. B. a woman who has had more than one sexual partner: Having multiple sexual partners raises HIV exposure risk, but focusing only on high-risk groups overlooks those infected through other means such as blood exposure or an unaware monogamous partner. C. a woman who is monogamous with her partner: Even women in monogamous relationships may be unknowingly exposed if their partners are HIV-positive. Therefore, monogamy alone does not eliminate the need for testing. D. all women, regardless of risk factors: Routine prenatal HIV testing is recommended for all pregnant women. Universal screening allows early initiation of antiretroviral therapy, significantly reducing the risk of mother-to-child transmission and improving maternal and fetal outcomes.