Which of the following are positive symptoms of psychotic disorders?

Choice A reason: Waxy flexibility is a catatonic motor symptom, and a lack of interest in social interactions (asociality) is a negative symptom of schizophrenia. Negative symptoms represent a "loss" or "deficit" of normal functioning, whereas positive symptoms are "additions" to the patient's experience, such as hallucinations or delusions. Choice B reason: Tardive dyskinesia is an extrapyramidal side effect resulting from long-term antipsychotic use, not a primary symptom of psychosis itself. Excitability can be seen in various states, including mania or catatonic excitement, but it is not a core "positive symptom" in the same diagnostic category as hallucinations or delusions. Choice C reason: Echolalia (meaningless repetition of another person's words) is a symptom seen in catatonia and certain developmental disorders. Parkinsonism is an extrapyramidal side effect of medication. Neither fits the definition of positive symptoms, which traditionally include hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized speech or behavior. Choice D reason: Hearing voices (auditory hallucinations) and seeing lights (visual hallucinations) are classic positive symptoms of psychotic disorders. They represent sensory perceptions that occur in the absence of an external stimulus. These symptoms reflect an excess or distortion of normal psychological functions and are primary targets for antipsychotic pharmacological intervention.